Case Studies of Tempo, Meter, Rhythm, Modality, and Musical Character

In their composition, Alegre, Tania León showcases rhythmic dexterity via the implementation of Latin grooves and the orchestration of a large wind ensemble. Though pitch is treated as an important element in the composition, it is clear that composite rhythm was important in León’s compositional process. Interestingly enough, there is only one meter used throughout the work, and it is a simple quadruple meter (4/4). Though many surmise this to be the most commonly used meter in orchestral/Classical music, León does not use the meter like it is typically used in other musical contexts. In fact, similar to Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, rhythm is treated as the utmost driving force of the performance of the composition, and it is often the case that the meter does not give you enough information pertaining to the grouping of notes between measures. The composite rhythmic material in the percussion section seems to be imitated throughout the wind ensemble, with articulation and dynamic levels being as boisterous and bright as those in the percussion. Despite the structural nature of the meter itself, in an effort to fuse the wind ensemble orchestration with a more rhythmic, groovy Latin musical style, León makes use of syncopation in several places. Indeed, though the tempo remains at its heightened point, the real excitement of the music can be felt when listening to the way in which the rhythm of the ensemble conflicts with the rhythmic and repetitive structure of the percussion material. It would be remiss to not acknowledge that the effectiveness of the syncopation used throughout the composition is due to the subversion of expectation and comfort. As aforementioned, 4/4 is a standard meter that most modern listeners understand, and León constantly establishes structure via rhythm that is to be disrupted via syncopation (accents of rhythms off the beat). For example, in Measure 8 of the work, the listener clearly interprets the rhythmic/musical material to be heavily dependent on the beat. However, through the next three measures, the rhythmic unison played throughout the ensemble is “moved around” within the measure, creating a sense of excitement via confusion. In addition to this, as León is obviously concerned with style, the segment at 1:59-2:07 features a brief, yet noticeable reference to the commonly applied tresillo, which is a rhythmic structure that the main theme of the piece itself might be developed upon in retrospect. There is clearly an extensive implementation of the ostinato idea, which tends to feature a repeated rhythmic structure over which melodic material is played. Again, this harkens back to the significance of rhythm and texture in Rite of Spring. Perhaps the clearest use of ostinato is observable through the segment at 1:12-1:59, during which the entire ensemble repeats the same chord and the same two-beat rhythmic statement. During this segment, three soloists (a trumpeter, a clarinetist, and a trombonist) showcase their soloistic skills over the ensemble accompaniment, and the trio seems to be in conversation with each other. Despite there seemingly being no significant modulations and a singular key (G Major), rhythmic syncopation and the relationship between rhythm and orchestration plays a major role in maintaining the interest of the listener.

In their song, “Hey Yah!”, Outkast makes use of a faster tempo than the tempo used in León’s work, and there is an interesting implementation of an odd time signature that is seldom heard in the context of early 2000s pop music and hip-hop. Indeed, the time signature may be interpreted to be 11/4, though people argue that the verse is composed of lines that alternate between different meters. Nevertheless, each line delivered throughout the song is delivered in such a way that follows an unfamiliar turn of phrase. Again, though there is no obvious modulation or key change, the key center need not move around to peak the listener’s interest. The main melodic line of each lyrical phrase in a given verse features a plethora of accents off the beat, showcasing an interesting syncopated musical context. The verses feature much syncopation and twisting around the backing beat from the accompaniment, but the choruses are repetitive, easily structured, and consist of long sustains in the vocals. The only break of the 11/4 trend is observable at the end of the final verse in the song on “happy here” (2:46-2:49). Here, the vocalist holds over a pause in the rest of the band on Beat 8 of the measure, only to come in an odd amount of time after the pause with the rest of the band. This moment is effective musically because there has not been a silence in the entirety of the song up until this point, and this is the moment where the rhythmic structure that is so familiar to the listener at that point breaks to invite curiosity. A part of the song that most notably showcases the use of syncopation against this odd time signature at the end of the song during the “shake it” segment (3:55-4:30), during which the backup choir sings “shake it” repeatedly over the 11/4 groove, creating a different sort of feel to the overall rhythmic line that feels more swung than the originally presented rhythmic structure of the line in the verses and choruses. Andre 3000 also solos over this line, which creates yet another layer of rhythmic complexity. It goes without stating that the expectation/surprise idea is viewable throughout the song. The main rhythmic line prevails throughout the song until the moment where everything drops out as aforementioned, and every time the chorus returns it is somewhat unexpected because of the odd meter of the lines in the verse. It is difficult for the listener to follow what is going on from a logistical standpoint, but the groove, orchestration, and lyricism convey a laid-back sort of performance approach to the music overall, suggesting fun to the listener.

Brahms’ Trio IV showcases an extensive use of tempo modulation, shifting of keys and modes, and syncopation, as well as several moments of unity and variety amongst the overall ensemble consisting of violin, violoncello, and piano. Each movement features a different meter and a different tempo, which is characteristic formal structure for such music at the time. That is, Movement 1 is in 3/4 (simple triple) and features an energetically fast tempo, Movement 2 is in “cut time” (2/2) and features a much brisker and more subtle tempo than that which is featured in the first movement, Movement 3 is presented in measures that alternate between 3/4 and 2/4 meters with a tempo that is the slowest so far (but not that slow), and Movement 4 features perhaps the fastest tempo in the entire piece with a meter of 6/8. Regarding rhythm in the context of syncopation, what may be the most striking example of such a compositional technique is starkly observable in Movement IV. In this movement, the melodic material in the violin and cello enter into syncopated responses to the piano accompaniment as part of the thematic section of the movement, which implies the importance of syncopation throughout the rest of the movement (15:42-15:55). Not only this, but the movement itself starts with an anacrusis (a pickup to the beginning of the first full measure of the piece). In doing so, Brahms establishes the ears of the listener to believe that Beat 1 is actually Beat 4 in the 6/8 bar, and this especially surprises the listener once a melodic instrument reaches the end of their phrase. It almost feels like there is an added beat at the end of each phrase over the piano accompaniment, which seems to function relatively independently of the melodic material at such moments all throughout the piece (observable from 15:31-15:40). In addition to considering rhythm and syncopation, there is an interesting bout of call-and-response that occurs in certain places that further reinforces the odd rhythmic character of the fourth movement as a whole in the context of the entire four-movement piece (15:55-16:07). Undeniably, too, there are several aspects to consider regarding mode, key, and modulations across this piece as well. As typical of a piece of this kind at the time, each movement starts in a different key, and each movement features the modulation from that key to another key by the end of the movement. For example, in the first movement, the key is obviously minor, but this key modulates along the way through several keys, such as the major key that is heard and established at the beginning of the segment starting at 1:26. Though this movement ends in the same key it starts, the second movement starts in the same key with which the first movement ends, but this key/mode changes along the way through the movement into different keys again only to return to the home key of C Minor. Brahms uses many fast modulations in this work to keep the listener interested along with the extensive implementation of syncopation that almost makes the music too difficult to understand! In fact, Brahms is careful to use the tension of rhythmic syncopation (in combination with what might be perceived as “incorrect pitches”) to truly capture the tension at the peak of a phrase that surprises the listener only to be satisfied by an immediate return to normalcy (0:43-0:48).

Finally, Anouchka Shankar’s “Lasya” showcases virtuosic approaches to rhythm and metric modulation. The meter is definitively in some sort of duple time signature (2/4 or 4/4) at the beginning of the song, but there are moments throughout the song that feature changes in time signature and metric modulation, such as moments like at 1:17 when the percussionists play hits together to indicate a triple feel underneath the riffing sitar part that is still in simple quadruple time. With the introduction of the konnakol material by one of the percussionists, impressive subdivisions are uttered that compliment the repetitive nature of the rest of the ensemble. In a way, this material converses with the sitar material (2:09-2:38). This segment gives way to yet another metric modulation that features the shift from 4/4 to 3/4, back to 4/4, and shortly to 2/4 only to return to the “A” section of the composition (2:38-2:47). Mod/Key center roughly remains somewhere in the minor/pentatonic region, with there being a constant pedal pitch that serves as the root of everything being played over it. This distinct root is played by the sitar. Syncopations are prevalent throughout the entirety of this composition, almost to an extent to which there is rarely a long, comfortable moment that lacks rhythmic energy and displacement. This music depicts beauty by way of rhythm and simple pitched material that repeats and is utterly bright, but not too harsh. Several moments throughout the piece, there are unison moments in which the entire ensemble plays together rhythmically (0:46-0:49); there are also moments in which two of the three players play in unison while the other player plays accompaniment and provides foundation (0:49-1:00). There are several moments in which both percussionists provide this foundation while the sitarist solos. There are many surprises throughout the performance of this piece, with the use of metric modulation and the introduction of the voice being moments of interruption that continue to flow simultaneously.